An Accidental Nutritionist.

My career as an accidental nutritionist began with my immersion in cholera control, a cyclone disaster, a smallpox epidemic, and formal training in ophthalmology and epidemiology. Interest in blindness prevention inexplicably led me to (re)pioneer the effects, treatment, and prevention of vitamin A deficiency, while faced with intense criticism by many leading scientists in the nutrition community. The resulting efforts by the World Health Organization and UNICEF in support of programs for the global control of vitamin A deficiency still face vocal opposition by some senior scientists, despite having been estimated to have saved tens of millions of children from unnecessary death and blindness. This entire journey was largely an accident!

Vitamin A-Deficiency Eye Disease Among Soldiers in the U.S. Civil War: Spectrum of Clinical Disease.

During the U.S. Civil War, nutritional night blindness was a common problem among soldiers forced to subsist of nutritionally inadequate diets, but medical officers typically attributed this complaint to malingering and did not suspect or appreciate a dietary basis. More than 8,000 cases of night blindness were recorded among Union troops, but many cases were not tabulated because of incomplete data for black soldiers and prisoners of war. From 1864 to 1865, during which comparable data were available for both whites and blacks, the average annual cumulative incidence of night blindness was 4.3 per 1,000 troops for whites, compared with 11.0 per 1,000 troops for blacks. Affected patients had dilated pupils that were poorly responsive to candle light. Approximately 30 cases of keratomalacia were also reported among severely malnourished and emaciated soldiers with chronic diarrhea, generally within 2 weeks before death. The reported clinical manifestations are characteristic of the full range of vitamin A deficiency eye disease from night blindness to corneal ulceration and perforation. Although medical officers typically accused affected soldiers of malingering, malingering cannot account for either the observed abnormalities of pupillary reflexes, or the corneal epithelial pathology and mortality recorded in severe cases.

Preventing blindness and saving lives: the centenary of vitamin A.

Within 20 years of its discovery 100 years ago, vitamin A was recognized as critical to normal eyes, growth, and survival. Clinical interest subsequently contracted to its importance in preventing xerophthalmia, until this ophthalmologist stumbled, quite accidently, on its role in fighting life-threatening infections. Repeated, large-scale randomized clinical trials eventually convinced (and reminded) the pediatric and nutrition communities of its importance for child survival. Vitamin A distribution programs are now credited with saving the sight and lives of nearly half a million children every year.

Global health in conflict. Understanding opposition to vitamin A supplementation in India.

Vitamin A supplementation is a public health intervention that clinical trials have suggested can significantly improve child survival in the developing world. Yet, prominent scientists in India have questioned its scientific validity, opposed its implementation, and accused its advocates of corruption and greed. It is ironic that these opponents were among the pioneers of populationwide vitamin A supplementation for ocular health. Historically, complex interests have shaped vitamin A supplementation resistance in India. Local social and nutritional revolutions and shifting international paradigms of global health have played a role. Other resistance movements in Indian history, such as those in response to campaigns for bacillus Calmette-Guérin and novel vaccines, have been structured around similar themes. Public health resistance is shaped by the cultural and political context in which it develops. Armed with knowledge of the history of a region and patterns of past resistance, public health practitioners can better understand how to negotiate global health conflicts.

[Recovery from blindness following smallpox or measles: Dutch miracle stories, 14th-18th century]. / Genezing van blindheid na pokken of mazelen: Nederlandse mirakelverhalen, 14e-18e eeuw.

Over recent decades, stories of miracles dating from 1380-1726 have been transcribed and are now generally available. These texts only contain a limited amount of medical information. This article closely examines the stories of being cured of blindness after being infected by smallpox or measles. Most of these stories concern children. Eleven of a total of 1700 stories that took place during the above-mentioned period of time concern this type of miracle. The article examines the possible relationship between these miracles and a lack of vitamin A.

Five decades of vitamin A studies in the region of Central America and Panama.

Vitamin A deficiency in Central America was first identified as a public health problem in the 1950s. It affected primarily children. The main underlying cause was a deficient intake of pre-formed vitamin A, but infection and intestinal parasitism also played important roles. INCAP focused its efforts on overcoming this problem and developed, as a short-term solution, the technology to fortify sugar with vitamin A. Fortification programs were implemented in several Central American countries. Evaluation of these programs revealed a significant impact-not only on vitamin A status, but also on iron nutrition and hematological condition. Longer-term solutions, like increasing the availability and consumption of vitamin A-rich foods, were later suggested and operational tools were developed to assist the countries in the region in the implementation, evaluation and monitoring of their own fortification programs.

A educação nutricional nos programas oficiais de prevenção da deficiência da vitamina A no Brasil / Nutrition education in the official programs for preventing vitamin A deficiency in Brazil

O objetivo deste artigo é identificar a inserção da Educação Nutricional nos programas oficiais brasileiros de combate à deficiência de vitamina A no Brasil, no período de 1968 a 2008. A metodologia utilizada foi pesquisa bibliográfica e pesquisa documental, onde foram analisados documentos oficiais, arquivados na Coordenação Geral de Políticas de Alimentação e Nutrição, do Ministério da Saúde, referentes aos programas governamentais nacionais para a prevenção e controle da Deficiência de Vitamina A. Descreve-se a trajetória da Educação Nutricional nos programas oficiais de combate à Deficiência de Vitamina A no Brasil, desde sua implantação até os dias atuais, constatando-se que a prática de Educação Nutricional é recomendada, porém não executada. Isso ocorre porque as ações propostas nos programas oficiais são sugeridas como ações pontuais, ao invés de estarem inseridas em uma política pública de promoção da saúde. Nesse sentido, o atual programa de prevenção e combate a essa Deficiência evoluiu, pois recomenda o aleitamento materno e a alimentação saudável - medidas de promoção da saúde -, como essenciais para a sua prevenção. Conclui-se que, à medida que a Educação Nutricional avance e se estabeleça como parte de uma política pública intersetorial de promoção para a saúde, a alimentação saudável passe a fazer parte da vida dos brasileiros, prevenindo não apenas a Deficiência de Vitamina A, mas, também, outras doenças carenciais e as crônicas não transmissíveis.

The objective of this article is to identify the insertion of nutrition education in the official Brazilian programs for the prevention of vitamin A deficiency in Brazil, in the period from 1968 to 2008. The employed methodology was a literature and document research, analyzing the official documents kept by the General Coordination of Food and Nutrition Policies of the Ministry of Health regarding national governmental programs for the prevention and control of vitamin A deficiency. The trajectory of nutrition education in the official programs for the prevention of Vitamin A deficiency in Brazil is described, from its implementation to the present days. Nutrition education was found to be recommended but not done. This happens because the actions proposed by the official programs are solitary actions when in fact they should be inserted in a health-promoting public policy. In this sense, the current program for the prevention of vitamin A deficiency has improved, since it recommends breastfeeding and healthy eating habits as essential factors for its prevention, measures that promote health. In conclusion, as nutrition education advances and is established as part of a trans-sector health-promoting public policy, healthy eating habits become part of Brazilians' daily life, preventing not only vitamin A deficiency, but also other nutritional deficiencies and non-communicable chronic diseases.

Chapter 29: historical aspects of the major neurological vitamin deficiency disorders: overview and fat-soluble vitamin A.

The vitamine doctrine: Although diseases resulting from vitamin deficiencies have been known for millennia, such disorders were generally attributed to toxic or infectious causes until the "vitamin doctrine" was developed in the early 20th century. In the late-19th century, a physiologically complete diet was believed to require only sufficient proteins, carbohydrates, fats, inorganic salts, and water. From 1880-1912, Lunin, Pekelharing, and Hopkins found that animals fed purified mixtures of known food components failed to grow or even lost weight and died, unless the diet was supplemented with small amounts of milk, suggesting that "accessory food factors" are required in trace amounts for normal growth. By this time, Funk suggested that deficiencies of trace dietary factors, which he labeled "vitamines" on the mistaken notion that they were "vital amines," were responsible for such diseases as beriberi, scurvy, rickets, and pellagra. Vitamin A deficiency eye disease: Night blindness was recognized by the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, and many authorities from Galen onward advocated liver as a curative. Outbreaks of night blindness were linked to nutritional causes in the 18th and 19th centuries by von Bergen, Schwarz, and others. Corneal ulceration was reported in 1817 by Magendie among vitamin A-deficient dogs fed for several weeks on a diet limited to sugar and water, although he erroneously attributed this to a deficiency of dietary nitrogen (i.e. protein). Subsequently, corneal epithelial defects, often in association with night blindness, were recognized in malnourished individuals subsisting on diets now recognizable as deficient in vitamin A by Budd, Livingstone, von Hubbenet, Bitot, Mori, Ishihari, and others. During World War I, Bloch conducted a controlled clinical trial of different diets among malnourished Danish children with night blindness and keratomalacia and concluded that whole milk, butter, and cod-liver oil contain a fat-soluble substance that protects against xerophthalmia. Early retinal photochemistry: In the 1870s, Boll found that light causes bleaching of the retinal pigment, and suggested that the outer segments of the rods contain a substance that conveys an impression of light to the brain by a photochemical process. Shortly thereafter, Kühne demonstrated that the bleaching process depends upon light, and was reversible if the retinal pigment epithelium was intact. Kühne proposed an "optochemical hypothesis," a prescient concept of photochemical transduction, attributing vision to a photochemical change in visual purple (rhodopsin) with resulting chemical products stimulating the visual cells and thereby conveying a visual image. Vitamin A: In 1913, Ishihara proposed that a "fatty substance" in blood is necessary for synthesis of both rhodopsin and the surface layer of the cornea, and that night blindness and keratomalacia develop when this substance is deficient. That year McCollum and Davis (and almost simultaneously Mendel and Osborne) discovered a fat-soluble accessory food factor (later called "fat-soluble A") distinct from the water-soluble anti-beriberi factor (later called "fat-soluble B"). By 1922 McCollum and colleagues distinguished two vitamins within the fat-soluble fraction, later named vitamins A and D. In 1925 Fridericia and Holm directly linked vitamin A to night blindness in animal experiments using rats, and in 1929 Holm demonstrated the presence of vitamin A in retinal tissue. In the 1930s, Moore, Karrer, Wald, and others established the provitamin role of beta-carotene. Karrer and colleagues isolated beta-carotene (the main dietary precursor of vitamin A) and retinol (vitamin A), and determined their chemical structures. In 1947, Isler and colleagues completed the full chemical synthesis of vitamin A. Modern retinal photochemistry: Beginning in the 1930s, Wald and colleagues greatly elaborated the photochemistry of vision, with the discovery of the visual cycle of vitamin A, demonstration that rhodopsin is decomposed by light into retinal (the aldehyde form of vitamin A) and a protein (opsin), elaboration of the enzymatic conversions of various elements in the rhodopsin system, and discovery that the rhodopsin system is dependent on a photoisomerization of retinal. In 1942, Hecht and colleagues demonstrated that a single photon could trigger excitation in a rod. In 1965, Wald suggested that a large chemical amplification was necessary for this degree of light sensitivity, likely by a cascade of enzymatic reactions. Later studies elaborated this cascade and found that an intermediary in the photoisomerization of retinal interacts with transducin, a G-protein, to activate phosphodiesterases that control cyclic GMP levels, which in turn modulate the release of neurotransmitter from the rod cell. Public health: Although the availability of vitamin A through food fortification and medicinal supplements virtually eliminated ocular vitamin A deficiency from developed countries by the second half of the 20th century, vitamin A deficiency remains a serious problem in developing countries as indicated by global surveys beginning in the 1960s. Millions of children were shown to be vitamin A deficient, with resultant blindness, increased susceptibility to infection, and increased childhood mortality. Beginning in the 1960s, intervention trials showed that vitamin A deficiency disorders could be prevented in developing countries with periodic vitamin A dosing, and in the 1980s and 1990s, large randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials demonstrated the marked efficacy of vitamin A supplementation in reducing childhood mortality.

Aspects of vitamin A.

Musgrave Park Hospital in 1942 was the site of an Anglo-American Vitamin A caper. A threatened court-martial was pre-empted. Subsequently the Queen's lecturer in Anatomy, JW Millen, who was the other lecturer to the first editor of this journal, RH Hunter, did much distinguished work. The neurological effects of Vitamin A were elucidated. Further work on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), placenta, thalidomide and poliomyelitis led to the pre-eminence in applied anatomy and teratology of now Reader James Wilson Millen and Professors JD Boyd and WJ Hamilton, all Queen's Medical School graduates. Training of RH Hunter, JH Biggart and JD Boyd at Johns Hopkins University profoundly influenced these seminal discoveries. The Garretts, a family of Lisburn, County Down origin, saved Johns Hopkins Hospital and Medical School from financial disaster. The Garretts founded a commercial and mercantile empire that took control of the Baltimore and Ohio (B and O) Railroad and enabled the Garretts to dictate that women should be admitted to the Hopkins Medical School and Hospital on exactly the same terms as men. All women and men should already be university honours graduates. Winston S Churchill on his progress up and down the B and O main line in March 1946, recounted to President Harry S Truman and Harry Hopkins his mother's tales of the Garrett boys' adventures.

Vitamin a deficiency and clinical disease: an historical overview.

Vitamin A deficiency has a plethora of clinical manifestations, ranging from xerophthalmia (practically pathognomonic) to disturbances in growth and susceptibility to severe infection (far more protean). Like other classical vitamin deficiency states (scurvy, rickets), some of the signs and symptoms of xerophthalmia were recognized long ago. Reports related to vitamin A and/or manifestations of deficiency might conveniently be divided into "ancient" accounts; eighteenth to nineteenth century clinical descriptions (and their purported etiologic associations); early twentieth century laboratory animal experiments and clinical and epidemiologic observations that identified the existence of this unique nutrient and manifestations of its deficiency; and, most recently, a flowering of carefully conducted clinical studies and field-based randomized trials that documented the full extent and impact of deficiency among the poor of low- and middle-income countries, which in turn changed global health policy.

Panorama das ações de controle da deficiência de vitamina A no Brasil / Overview of actions to control vitamin A deficiency of in Brazil

OBJETIVO: Este trabalho propõe-se a descrever a trajetória da implantação das ações de controle da deficiência de vitamina A no Brasil. MÉTODOS: Trata-se de estudo baseado em dados secundários, obtidos nos registros, documentos técnicos e relatórios oficiais do Instituto Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição, autarquia do Ministério da Saúde extinta em 1997, da Coordenação Geral da Política Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição do Ministério da Saúde, e informações obtidas com informantes-chaves, empregando a abordagem multidimensional alicerçada na tríade: estrutura-processo-resultado. RESULTADOS: O Brasil foi pioneiro na iniciativa de introduzir a distribuição de vitamina A nas campanhas nacionais de imunização, estratégia posteriormente preconizada pela Organização Mundial da Saúde e pelo Fundo das Nações Unidas para a Infância. Desde 1983, o Ministério da Saúde utiliza megadoses de vitamina A, como uma das ações para combater a deficiência deste micronutriente. O percentual de cobertura da população alvo (crianças de 6 a 59 meses) tem aumentado, alcançando 72 por cento e 68 por cento, nos anos de 2002 e 2003, respectivamente. Essas coberturas são semelhantes às registradas nos 40 países que adotam esta estratégia. Desde 2001 o programa foi ampliado para beneficiar puérperas, no pós-parto imediato. CONCLUSÃO: Foram modestos os avanços obtidos até o ano de 1992, fato que pode ser explicado pela falta de regularidade na distribuição das cápsulas de vitamina A. A partir de 1994, o programa manteve certa constância, porém persiste a necessidade de promover ações mais consolidadas nos serviços de saúde com maior alcance social, para além da distribuição rotineira dessas cápsulas.

OBJECTIVE: This manuscript aims to describe the implementation of actions to control vitamin A deficiency in Brazil. METHODS: The study was based on secondary data obtained from official reports and technical documents from the former Instituto Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição (inactivated in 1997), from the Coordenação Geral da Política Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição, Ministry of Health and information obtained from key informants employing the multidimensional approach based on the triad: structure-process-result. RESULTS: Brazil was pioneer in taking the initiative of linking vitamin A distribution to the National Immunization Days, a strategy that later on was recommended by the World Health Organization and the United Nations Children's Fund. Since 1983, vitamin A megadoses are employed as a strategy to fight this micronutrient deficiency by the Ministério da Saúde. Coverage of the target population (children 6-59 months old) is steadily increasing, reaching 72 percent and 68 percent in the years 2002 and 2003 respectively. These coverage rates are similar to those reported in the 40 countries that have also adopted this strategy. Since 2001 the program was extended to lactating women, in the immediate post-partum period. CONCLUSION: The program achievements until 1992 were very modest, fact that could be explained by the irregularity of vitamin A capsule distribution. From 1994 on the distribution was more constant, but the need to promote more integrated actions in the health services, as well as far reaching social actions, beyond the routine distribution of vitamin A capsules, still remains.

A investigação da cegueira noturna no grupo materno-infantil: uma revisão histórica / The investigation of night blindness in the mother-child group: a historical review

Objetivou-se neste estudo apresentar uma revisão histórica sobre a cegueira noturna, um indicador funcional da deficiência de vitamina A. Realizou-se uma revisão da literatura científica publicada no período de 1929 a 2005, nas bases de dados Medline, Lilacs, SciELO e dos comitês nacionais e internacionais de saúde e de micronutrientes, utilizando-se os termos night blindness, xerophthalmia, pregnancy, post partum women, newborn, children, vitamin A deficiency, micronutrient, deficiência de vitamina A, micronutriente, cegueira noturna, gestação, xeroftalmia. O reconhecimento da importância do indicador funcional da deficiência de vitamina A foi consagrado em 1996 pela Organização Mundial de Saúde, a partir da recomendação de uma entrevista padronizada para investigação da cegueira noturna. O método se caracteriza por apresentar facilidades operacionais, ser de baixo custo, além de permitir a sua aplicação tanto para o monitoramento do estado nutricional de pessoas e comunidades, quanto para a avaliação da eficácia de programas de intervenção. Entre gestantes e nutrizes, estudos recentes sugerem a utilidade deste indicador no diagnóstico dos casos de deficiência de vitamina A ainda no estágio subclínico da deficiência, sendo grande a sua concordância com indicadores bioquímicos. Ao longo dos anos, verifica-se também o reconhecimento deste indicador como um instrumento importante para a predição do risco de morbimortalidade no grupo materno-infantil.

The aim of this study was to provide a historical review of night blindness, a functional indicator of vitamin A deficiency. The scientific literature published in the period from 1929 to 2005 was reviewed, using Medline, Lilacs, SciELO, National and International Health and Micronutrients Comities databases. The key words used were: night blindness, xerophthalmia, pregnancy, postpartum women, newborn, children, vitamin A deficiency, micronutrient. The importance of the functional indicator of vitamin A deficiency has been consecrated in 1996 by the World Health Organization through the recommendation of a standardized interview to investigate cases of night blindness. The method is characterized by methodological easiness, low cost and it allows the monitoring of the nutritional status of people and communities, and evaluation of the efficacy of interventions. Recent studies suggest that this indicator is also useful for diagnosing subclinical vitamin A deficiency among pregnant women and postpartum women, since the agreement with biochemical indicators is expressive. Along the years, this indicator has also been recognized as an important instrument to predict the risk of morbidity and mortality in the mother-child dyad.